Lois M Shelton

Here, a model of minority firm expansion based on the resource-based view, the expansion barriers framework, and social stratification processes illustrates the economic and social barriers faced by minority companies. Firm growth is impacted by industry economic structure through expansion barriers, and by industry social structure through opportunity structures. It is argued that industry social structure, which includes discriminatory industry practices, can be used to stratify firms into higher and lower performing groups by ethnicity and will have a greater impact on minority firm growth in industries with more concentrated social structures and higher wealth creation potential.

Existing theory is extended to predict the effectiveness of strategies for structurally
reducing work–family conflict by manipulating roles, given the salience of work and family roles and resources available to the female entrepreneur. A conceptual frame- work based on the constructs of role involvement and role conflict is used to examine whether high-growth female entrepreneurs choose more appropriate strategies for reducing work–family conflict than their less successful counterparts. Three basic strategies for manipulating roles are discussed: (1) role elimination; (2) role reduction; and (3) role-sharing.
The following propositions are advanced: (1) work–family management strategies are a significant determinant of venture growth; (2) women who develop high-growth businesses more effectively reduce work–family conflict by choosing strategies better matched with their internal needs and access to external resources than less suc- cessful women; and (3) role-sharing strategies are preferred because they allow women to enjoy the enhancement of both work and family roles while reducing the level of inter-role conflict. As a result, the high prevalence of team-building and par- ticipative management practices observed in women-owned businesses may be driven by the need for female entrepreneurs to manage work–family conflicts as well as genetics or socialization.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore: How do changes in the role of the husband affect the marriage of a woman entrepreneur? How do changes in the marriage affect the woman entrepreneur and her relationship with her business?
Design/methodology/approach – A novel theoretical approach based on marriage contract theory, gender role ideology and psychological contracts was used. Qualitative methodology included analysis of multiple cases based on rich interview data gathered from 12 Scandinavian couples.
Findings – Research revealed that the pattern of dominance between the husband and wife, the gender role ideologies of the two spouses, and the interaction between this pattern and the gender role ideologies, and overall level of marital harmony were key determinants of husbands’ spousal support.
Research limitations/implications – Sample size and geographical limitations. Future research: exploring other cultural settings, further application of marriage and psychological contracts in female entrepreneurship; studies of the impact areas of the husband in the wife’s business – also from the perspective of implicit contracts.
Practical implications – Research sheds light on how women run their businesses and how the changing roles of the spouse alter marriage dynamics and influence the wife-business relationship.
Social implications – Findings benefit female entrepreneurs considering the launch of a business,
couples in which the wife currently owns a business, state and governmental policymakers, business
consultants, and entrepreneurship instructors. These findings can help couples better prepare for the
demands of entrepreneurship.
Originality/value – For scholars: expanded understanding of the work-family interface of female entrepreneurs via novel theoretical approach. For business practitioners: understanding the impact of a spouse on life and career of female entrepreneur.

Twelve cases of female entrepreneurs and their husbands in Scandinavia – Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway were analyzed twice in 2008 and 2011 to determine the impact of the spousal support on the woman and her business, and the effect of female entrepreneurship on the couple and the marriage. Thanks to three theories (Gender role ideology, marriage contract and psychological contract), we first determined a link between the respective gender role ideologies of the husband and the wife, the nature of the marriage and the nature and level of spousal support,
and secondarily, a link between the level of spousal support and the nature of the psychological contract the female entrepreneur develops with her business. As a result, we identify four situations in which the role of the husband in terms of emotional support, business support and household support to female entrepreneurship differs regarding these variables.

Cet article s’intéresse à la nature et au niveau de support que le conjoint prodigue
à la femme entrepreneur, se fondant sur une approche théorique originale en sciences de gestion : la théorie du contrat marital qui a donné naissance à la théorie du contrat psychologique. Grâce à l’analyse de douze cas relatant des situations diverses de l’entrepreneuriat féminin en Scandinavie, nous mettons en évidence quatre configurations possibles, fondées sur cette théorie et les conceptions respectives des deux conjoints en matière de répartition des rôles dans la société selon les sexes. Nous mettons en évidence non seulement que la qualité de la relation de couple a un impact sur le soutien du conjoint et sa nature à l’entrepreneuriat féminin mais aussi que l’entrepreneuriat féminin, selon les configurations envisagées, peut soit améliorer, soit détériorer la relation de couple.

This study explores the role of intervening factors on the relationship between R&D investment and firm performance in the global chemical products industry. We found mediated moderation where innovative output partially mediates the relationship between R&D investment and firm performance and firm age represents the moderator. Older firms demonstrate larger positive effects of R&D investment on innovative output and firm performance relative to younger firms. Older firms also demonstrate a stronger indirect effect of R&D investment through innovative output than younger firms.

Previous research has noted differences between entrepreneurial enterprises owned by men and women. This study examines differences between the form of legal organization chosen by male and female owned entrepreneurial enterprises as an indicator of growth aspirations and risk preferences. Specifically, we argue that the choice to organize as a corporation rather than a sole proprietorship is generally associated with greater growth aspirations. Relying on a sample of nearly 12,000 service organizations in San Diego County, we find no evidence that the likelihood of organizing as a corporation rather than a sole proprietorship is related to the gender of the owner. We do find, however, that this result masks significant differences in the choice of legal form for women- and male-owned businesses within particular service industries.

The concept of scale barriers is introduced to shed light on new venture growth. Growth is a process of overcoming resource deficiencies, or scale barriers, resulting from the liabilities of newness and smallness. New ventures employ a variety of resource accumulation strategies to surmount three types of barriers - competitive deficiencies, management and organizational deficiencies, and financial deficiencies. A theoretical model shows how environmental munificence and industry conditions influence barrier size while resource accumulation strategies and initial venture endowments determine a venture's ability to overcome these barriers. The difficulties of growth are illustrated as an extension of the difficulties of survival.

This study presents a framework deriving the demand and supply of target firm shares in merger, and tests it using event study methodology and regression analysis. Target and bidder behavior are not mirror images; instead bidders rank and pursue targets which either accept or reject bids. Merger cycles are motivated by bidder demand shifts, target quality is as important as strategic fit for bidders, and transaction type is confirmed as the most reliable predictor of variation in premiums.Target institutional investors raise the cost to the bidder.

A  sample  of  218 mergers  made  by  randomly  selected  bidders  during  1962 to  1983 is classified  by changes in the product  market opportunities of the bidder firms.  Multivariate regression analysis shows that acquisitions which permit the bidder access to new but related markets create the most  value with the least variance.

Young/small firms are often seen as acquisition targets, but rarely viewed as potential acquirers. However, in this study we found that one third of the young ventures in our sample pursued aggressive growth though acquisition of their competitors. Furthermore, contrary to conventional wisdom, we found striking evidence that young firms pursuing growth via acquisition significantly outperformed their peers who pursued growth via internal development. Thus, growth via acquisition clearly represents a viable strategic option for young, small firms.

A sample of 114 mergers made by randomly selected bidders during 1962 to 1983 is classified by changes in the product market opportunities of the bidder firms. Multivariate regression analysis shows that acquisitions which permit the bidder access to new but related markets create the most value.